The Crusades. A Conflict Explained

The Crusades were a major military episode of the High Middle Ages. Thousands of European christians vowed to reconquer the Holy Land from its “infidel” muslim masters. Not every Crusade ended up in the Orient. One targeted the Byzantine Empire. Other expeditions went to Tunisia or the pagan lands of the Baltic. However, all campaigns were part of a violent explosion of christian militarism.

Western Europe started opening up with the wider world. With the Crusades, it left its first major mark on intercontinental history.

What did the Crusades mean to accomplish?

During its stellar ascent in the 7th century CE, Islamic forces conquered the medieval Orient – i.e., the Asian and African coastlines of the Mediterrean Sea. Under command of Muhammad’s official successor, the caliph, they overran the Byzantine (or Eastern Roman) provinces here. The city of Jerusalem fell after a siege of six months.

Life under the caliph was pretty good for most jews and christians. As fellow People of the Book, early Islam was very tolerant of them. The caliphate went to great lengths to protect christian pilgrims still pouring into Jerusalem after the muslim conquest of the city.

During the 10th century, the power of the caliph started to decline. Mercenary Turks entered the Near East in great numbers and set up the Seljuq Empire in the Orient. Incidents with pilgrims started to occur, as Seljuqs harassed and robbed Europeans making their way to Jerusalem.

The Turks also inflicted further defeats on the Byzantine Empire – still a major power in the region. When the Byzantine emperor asked the West for help against the Turks, his plea was greeted with enthusiasm by christians seeking revenge. After a rousing speech by the pope, many commoners and knights “took the cross”: they vowed to wage holy war against Islam and reconquer Jerusalem.

How many Crusades were there?

Most historians distinguish eight major Crusades that projected the military power of Latin Christianity across the Mediterranean.

1. The First Crusade of 1096-1099. The most famous of them all because it immediately set a high bar: it got the job done and conquered Jerusalem. Several Crusader states were established in the Orient as a result.
2. The Second Crusade of 1147-1150. When the first Crusader state fell to the resurgent Seljuqs, a counteroffensive was launched by the French king and the German emperor. In the end, both monarchs were beaten by the Seljuq Empire.
3. The Third Crusade of 1189-1192. Islam went on the offensive: sultan Saladin reconquered Jerusalem. As a response, the German emperor and the (new) French king led another expedition east – accompanied by the mighty Richard the Lionheart. This “Crusade of Kings” reversed some of Saladin’s successes, but Jerusalem remained in muslim hands.

Second phase: shifting targets

4. The Fourth Crusade of 1202-1204. Probably the most infamous Crusade, as Venetian captains managed to drive it into the heart of a Byzantine succession struggle. Shockingly, the crusaders conquered and plundered the fellow christian city of Constantinople.
5. The Fifth Crusade of 1217-1221. This time the Crusaders attempted a southern approach. A large army of Hungarian, Austrian, Dutch, Frisian and Flemish soldiers was assembled and attacked Egypt. They were soundly beaten.
6. The Sixth Crusade of 1228-1229. Quite interestingly, this campaign involved very little fighting. German emperor Frederick II sailed east and quickly started negotiating with the muslim sultan. Jerusalem was given back to the christians and a truce was concluded.
7. The Seventh Crusade of 1248-1254. The treaty of the Sixth Crusade didn’t last long. The Holy Land was back in muslim hands by 1244. Another French king sailed east, but failed to change the situation and was actually captured in battle.
8. The Eighth Crusade of 1270. Again changing objectives, this expedition targeted Tunisia. The same French king that led the Seventh Crusade died shortly after landing on the shores of North Africa. Soon afterward, his army retreated to Europe.

The list above only covers Crusades that meant to bring the Orient back under christian control. However, the Crusades soon expanded to other theaters. Major expeditions were launched against the Baltic region, against fellow christians in southern France, and against muslims in Spain – to name but a few.

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How did the Crusades change the world?

The Crusades brought Western Europe in contact with the wider world. Answering the Byzantine plea for help propelled many Europeans into the politics and commerce of the medieval Orient. And, as the western ends of the Silk Road were located in Baghdad, Damascus and Constantinople, there was much commerce to be conducted.

Relations between the Crusaders and the Byzantine Empire soured during the First Crusade. Consequently, the Italian city-states transported much of the subsequent expeditions overseas. Never turning a blind eye to commercial interests, a lot of Italian merchants thus came into contact with the wealth of the Orient. The new Crusader states were in the perfect position to forge new trade links between East and West.

It has been argued that the Crusades were a politically and economically motivated series of campaigns just like any other military expedition. While there were certainly great opportunities in the Holy Land, we should not underestimate the religiousness of medieval life. Many participants of the Crusades – especially of the first one – thought they embarked on a holy war.

It’s precisely this militant extremism that produced the ugly side of the Crusades’ legacy. Outside of the oriental theater, the idea expanded to other regions and sometimes became genocidal in nature. Holy war casts reality in such black-and-white terms that it allows for very unholy deeds.

Recommended reading

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• P.M. Cobb – ‘The Race for Paradise: An Islamic History of the Crusades’ [2016, Oxford University Press]
• T. Asbridge – ‘The Crusades: The War for the Holy Land’ [2010, Simon & Schuster]
• C. Tyerman – ‘God’s War: A New History of the Crusades’ [2009, Belknap Press]