The Chinese. A Civilization Explained

As one of the oldest civilizations around, the Chinese people were around during the Middle Ages – from beginning to end. Throughout most of it, they were a great power and dominated Eastern Asia. But the Chinese Empire was also frequently plagued with disunity and rocked by rebellion.

Although a lot of dynasties tried, four of them ultimately managed to unite China during the Middle Ages. These mighty emperors beat the specter of civil war and ushered in periods of great cultural and scientific progress. Many medieval inventions had their origin in China, such as gunpowder, paper and the compass.

The Three Kingdoms & The Tang Dynasty

When the ancient Han Empire broke down, China split into three kingdoms: Wei, Shu and Wu. This was the infamous Three Kingdoms period (220-280 CE). Sometimes they reached a stable military arrangement. More often than not, though, chaotic fighting made this era into one of the bloodiest in Chinese history. It has been said – but also disputed – that China’s population decreased from over 55 million to barely 16 million souls.

Next came the Jin Dynasty (266-420). Their hold on power was so tenous that the country fractured even further. Most of their reign is better known as the Sixteen States era. From 420 to 589 this situation consolidated somewhat, with China divided into two to four states. Finally, in 581, the Sui Dynasty reunited the country after three centuries of political division.

The Tang Dynasty overthrew the Sui already in 618 but built upon the centralizing successes of their predecessors. The Tang ruled until 907 and despite a severe rebellion, their era was a golden age of prosperity, stability as well as cultural and technological creativity. Chang’an (modern Xi’an) was the largest city in the world during the Tang era. Initially, the Tang emperors scored many military successes and expanded China greatly westward, into Central Asia.

The Song Dynasty & The Mongols

A great rebellion rocked the Tang Empire in the 8th century and another one in the 9th. Factional strife and revolting regional warlords plagued the late Tang Empire, when it also increasingly came under foreign attack. Another multi-state period followed, aptly named the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms era (907 – 960). One of these Chinese states, the Song, managed to subdue the others. They ruled China from 960 until 1279, although a couple of northern regions were under foreign control throughout this period.

The Song Dynasty was a period of great urbanization, economic prosperity and technological advances. Gunpowder, paper and the compass were invented during the Song era. The emperors immediately grasped the powerful potential of printing and started issuing the first paper money in world history. China’s population probably doubled under their rule. The Song economy was one of the most advanced of the medieval world, featuring innovations such as joint-stock companies and shareholders.

During the 12th century, one of the northern dynasties went on the offensive. They drove the Song to the south. Since this was fertile and prosperous land, they managed to cling to power there. Consequently, China split into a northern Jin Dynasty and a southern Song dynasty. This division played right into the Mongol advance from even farther north.

The Mongols conquered the Jin in 1234. The Song succeeded in resisting the invaders for four decades but ultimately fell as well in 1279. Kublai Khan, one of the grandsons of Genghis Khan, became the first emperor of the Yuan Dynasty.

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The Mighty Ming

The (Mongol) Yuan Dynasty launched invasions of Vietnam and Japan, which both failed miserably. The Mongols proved to be more than fearsome conquerors, however. With so much of Asia under their control, a Pax Mongolica descended upon the continent. Trade flourished, bringing merchants like Marco Polo east – all the way from Venice, Italy. Quanzhou and Hangzhou became the largest ports in the world.

In the end, the Yuan were a bit too fond of money. They printed so much of it that they caused hyperinflation. Paired with a string of natural distasters, this caused peasant rebellions. Ultimately, these destroyed Mongol rule. Riding this wave of resentment, the leaders of the revolt proclaimed the Ming Dynasty in 1368.

Under the Ming, industry specializing in paper, silk and porcelain sprung up. Chinese merchant expeditions reached as far as the coasts of East Africa. The Ming introduced many reforms and abolished slavery. Consciously trying to prevent another large-scale foreign invasion, they created a standing army of one million soldiers. For the same reason, the Ming immensely expanded, strengthened and upgraded the Great Wall.

The Ming Dynasty fiercely protected the thriving Chinese lands for almost three centuries. However, as the Middle Ages came to a close, the Portuguese and the Dutch presented overseas challenges. Finally, it was another northern invasion – this time from Manchuria – that led to the establishment of the post-medieval, early modern Qing Dynasty.

Recommended reading

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• M.E. Lewis – ‘China’s Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty’ [2012, Belknap Press]
• D. Kuhn – ‘The Age of Confucian Rule: The Song Transformation of China’ [2011, Belknap Press]
• T. Brook – ‘The Troubled Empire: China in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties’ [2013, Belknap Press]